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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND MICROBIOTA

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The endocrine system synthesizes and secrete hormones to regulate physiological processes. Interestingly the gut microbiome is an endocrine organ itself; metabolomic and metagenomic studies have revealed bacterial metabolites and components that affect organ function and subsequently, physiological outcomes.

Endocrine System

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM, GUT MICROBIOME AND OTHER DISRUPTORS

Gut microbiome and the Endocrine (Glands Hormones) System
A healthy gut microbiota not only has beneficial effects on the activity of the immune system, but also on the functioning of the endocrine system.This study concludes "Likewise, a role for the microbiota in the regulation of the HPA axis has been established as well as the serotonergic system via modulation of tryptophan availability. Unlike other endocrine organs, the microbiota has intense plasticity and can alter dramatically and rapidly in response to diet."
Note! "hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, an intricate, yet robust, neuroendocrine mechanism that mediates the effects of stressors by regulating numerous physiological processes, such as metabolism, immune responses, and the autonomic nervous system (ANS)"More spicifically, "The composition of the gut microbiota has an influence on the availability of essential micronutrients for the thyroid gland.Iodine, iron, and copper are crucial for thyroid hormone synthesis, selenium and zinc are needed for converting T4 to T3, and vitamin D assists in regulating the immune response".
The damage incurred to gut microbiota by drugs in general and antibiotic drugs in particular! The human gut microbiota has now been proved to be closely associated with drug responses and efficacy, while chemical compounds present in these drugs can also impact the gut bacteria. Some drugs with microbial features, proton-pump inhibitors, metformin, antibiotics and laxatives show the strongest impact and associations with the microbiome. Read more

The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Thyroid axis (HPT) axis, is part of the neuroendocrine system responsible for the regulation of metabolism and also responds to stress.
The interdependence between thyroid hormones, namely, thyroxine and triiodothyronine, and immune system is nowadays well-recognized.
Thyroid diseases are common conditions that have a negative impact on the health of all populations. The literature sheds light on the differences in the composition of the intestinal microbiota in patients suffering from thyroid diseases compared to healthy individuals.

The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal (HPA) axis is emerging to closely interact with the gut microbiota.
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a complex neuroendocrine system that plays a crucial role in the body's stress response and homeostasis regulation. Here's an overview of its key components and functions:

1. Hypothalamus

2. Pituitary gland

3. Adrenal glands

When the body perceives stress, the following cascade of events occurs:

The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin[1][3].
CRH stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)[1][3].
ACTH travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal cortex, where it stimulates the production and release of glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol in humans[1][3].

Functions and Regulation

The HPA axis serves several important functions:

Stress response: It mediates the body's physiological adaptation to stressors[1][2].
Homeostasis: It regulates various body processes, including metabolism, immune responses, and energy balance[1].
Circadian rhythm: It plays a role in maintaining the body's daily rhythms[2].

The HPA axis is regulated through negative feedback loops:

Elevated cortisol levels inhibit further HPA axis activation by suppressing CRH and ACTH production in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, respectively[3].

This feedback mechanism helps maintain appropriate cortisol levels and prevents overactivation of the stress response[3].

Clinical Significance

Dysregulation of the HPA axis can lead to various health issues:

Chronic stress can result in prolonged activation of the HPA axis, potentially leading to anxiety, depression, and other mood disorders[2].
Abnormal HPA axis function has been implicated in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis[1].
HPA axis dysfunction may contribute to metabolic disorders and cardiovascular diseases[2].

Understanding the HPA axis is crucial for comprehending the physiological effects of stress and the potential long-term consequences of chronic stress on overall health and well-being.

Low levels of gonadal circulating estrogen (Gonads are glands that produce hormones involved in reproduction and other functions of the body) observed in post-menopausal women can adversely impact a diverse range of physiological factors, with clinical implications for brain cognition, gut health, the female reproductive tract and other aspects of women's health. One of the principal regulators of circulating estrogens is the gut microbiome.

"Recent advances show a relationship and possible cause and effect between the gut microbiota and the initiation or exacerbation of autoimmune diseases. Furthermore, microbial dysbiosis and leaky gut are frequent phenomena in both human autoimmune diseases and the murine autoimmunity models."

Women have a higher incidence and prevalence of autoimmune diseases than men, and 85% or more patients of multiple autoimmune diseases are female. Women undergo sweeping endocrinological changes at least twice during their lifetime, puberty and menopause, with many women undergoing an additional transition: pregnancy, which may or may not be accompanied by breastfeeding. These endocrinological transitions exert significant effects on the immune system due to interactions between the hormonal milieu, innate, and adaptive immune systems as well as pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and thereby modulate the susceptibility of women to autoimmune diseases.

"The human gut-resident commensal microbiota (our indigenous bacteria) is a unique ecosystem associated with various bodily functions, especially immunity. Gut microbiota dysbiosis (imbalance of gut microbiota associated with an unhealthy outcome) plays a crucial role in autoimmune disease pathogenesis as well as in bowel-related diseases."

This study (one out of many) "describes the bidirectional communication between the gut microbiota and the HPA (Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal) axis and delineates the potential underlying mechanisms."
This Study, "discuss how the intestinal bacterial microbiome and in particular how an 'estrobolome,' the aggregate of enteric bacterial genes capable of metabolizing estrogens, might affect women's risk of developing postmenopausal estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer."

The above citations and references are presented to convince you that healthy gut microbiota is a prime element in the maintenance of healthy endocrine system. For more about HEALTHY MICROBIOTA read on this page.

The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Thyroid axis

The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal (HPA) axis

Thyroid Disorder - Hypothyroidism

Thyroid Disorder - Hypothyroidism
A condition, typically affects people over 60 and is more common among women than men, where the thyroid gland no longer produces enough of the important metabolism-controlling hormones.
Without the right amount of thyroid hormones the T4 and T3 ones, your body’s natural functions – like your cognitive functioning (Read more) and metabolism – start deteriorating.

T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triiodothyronine) are crucial thyroid hormones that play vital roles in regulating various bodily functions. Here's an overview of their roles and importance:

Metabolic Regulation

T4 and T3 are essential for controlling metabolism throughout the body. They influence how cells use energy and regulate the body's overall metabolic rate[1][2]. This impacts various processes, including:

Protein synthesis: Thyroid hormones help regulate protein production in cells.
Carbohydrate metabolism: They influence how the body processes and uses carbohydrates.
Fat metabolism: T3 and T4 play a role in fat breakdown and utilization.

Growth and Development

Thyroid hormones are critical for:

Brain development: Especially crucial during fetal development and early childhood.
Physical growth: They influence bone growth and maturation.

Organ Function

T3 and T4 affect the function of nearly every organ system in the body, including:

Cardiovascular system: Regulating heart rate and cardiac output.
Respiratory system: Influencing breathing rate and lung function.
Digestive system: Affecting gut motility and nutrient absorption.
Nervous system: Impacting cognitive function and mood.

Temperature Regulation

Thyroid hormones help maintain body temperature by influencing heat production and energy expenditure[2].

Hormone Interplay

T4 as a prohormone: T4 serves primarily as a reservoir for T3, the more biologically active form[1].
Conversion process: Most T3 is produced by converting T4 to T3 in peripheral tissues, particularly the liver and kidneys[3].
Thyroid-Progesterone Interactions - The thyroid and progesterone can influence each other in several ways:
- Thyroid hormones affect the metabolism of steroid hormones, including progesterone.
- Hypothyroidism may lead to increased progesterone levels in some men.
- Progesterone can influence thyroid hormone binding in the bloodstream.
- Both hormones play roles in male fertility and reproductive function.

Feedback Loop

T3 and T4 participate in a complex feedback system involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and thyroid gland to maintain hormonal balance[2][4].

Clinical Significance

Imbalances in T3 and T4 levels can lead to various thyroid disorders:

Hypothyroidism: Insufficient thyroid hormone production, leading to symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, and cold intolerance[5].
Hyperthyroidism: Excessive thyroid hormone production, causing symptoms such as anxiety, weight loss, and heat intolerance[5].

Understanding the roles of T3 and T4 is crucial for diagnosing and managing thyroid disorders, as well as comprehending their wide-ranging effects on overall health and well-being.

Does hypothyroidism cause high cortisol (don't confuse it with cholesterol) levels?
It has long been known that hypothyroidism causes elevated cortisol levels, presumably due to both decreased clearance and blunted negative feedback of cortisol on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis

In Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis, the immune system mistakenly attacks the thyroid gland. Over time, these autoimmune attacks destroy healthy thyroid tissue, reducing thyroid hormone production. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis is the most common cause of underactive thyroid in the United States. And while it mostly affects middle-aged women, it can affect anyone at any age.

Hypothyroidism In Infants

Although hypothyroidism most often affects middle-aged and older women, anyone can develop the condition, including infants. Initially, babies born without a thyroid gland or with a gland that doesn't work properly may have few signs and symptoms. When newborns do have problems with hypothyroidism, the problems may include:

Yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes (jaundice). In most cases, this occurs when a baby's liver can't metabolize a substance called bilirubin, which normally forms when the body recycles old or damaged red blood cells.
A large, protruding tongue.
Difficulty breathing.
Hoarse crying.
An umbilical hernia.

As the disease progresses, infants are likely to have trouble feeding and may fail to grow and develop normally. They may also have:

Constipation
Poor muscle tone
Excessive sleepiness

When hypothyroidism in infants isn't treated, even mild cases can lead to severe physical and mental retardation.

Hypothyroidism in children and teens

In general, children and teens who develop hypothyroidism have the same signs and symptoms as adults do, but they may also experience:

Poor growth, resulting in short stature
Delayed development of permanent teeth
Delayed puberty
Poor mental development

Hyperthyroidism is a condition causing your thyroid to produce too much thyroid hormone. This can cause normal bodily processes to speed up, such as your heart rate. It can also lead to weight loss and difficulty sleeping.

Hyperthyroidism is far less common than hypothyroidism, affecting less than 1% of people over the age of 12. Just like hypothyroidism, though, hyperthyroidism tends to affect women and men over the age of 60.

Thyroid Health:

There are some supplements that could help with thyroid general health like Selenium (a mineral needed for thyroid hormone production), Iodine, Zinc, and Iron. BUT, first and foremost, its health is closely linked to a healthy body and gut microbiota - actions for microbiota health are prescribed on this linked page.

Note! "the composition of the gut microbiota has an influence on the availability of essential micronutrients for the thyroid gland. Iodine, iron, and copper are crucial for thyroid hormone synthesis, selenium and zinc are needed for converting thyroxine (the thyroid hormone - T4) to triiodothyronine hormone (T3), and vitamin D assists in regulating the immune response. Those micronutrients are often found to be deficient in Autoimmune Thyroid Disease patients (AITDs), resulting in malfunctioning of the thyroid. Bariatric surgery can lead to an inadequate absorption of these nutrients and further implicates changes in thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and T3 levels. Supplementation of probiotics showed beneficial effects on thyroid hormones and thyroid function in general..." Read more here.

Hypothyroidism In Infants

Thyroid Health

Melatonin and the Pineal Gland

Melatonin and the Pineal Gland
The Melatonin hormone, often referred to as the sleep hormone, is a central part of the body’s sleep-wake cycle. Its production increases with evening darkness, promoting healthy sleep and helping to orient the body’s circadian rhythm. Two forms of melatonin exist in the body – circulatory (produced by the pineal gland), and subcellular (produced inside the cells and mitochondria); the majority of melatonin in the body is subcellular.
Absence of light stimulates production of melatonin from the pineal gland, however, the largest stimulus of subcellular melatonin is near infrared light (sunshine is the greatest source - Roughly 49% of solar radiation is infrared between 700nm-1mm!).

Note! The antioxidant effects of melatonin are so strong, they are thought to be strong and more potent than glutathione [REF1], Vitamin C [REF2], and Vitamin E. Melatonin is also being studied in other areas of health, such as neurodegenerative diseases, cancers, and anti-aging in general

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND MICROBIOTA

Page Content

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM, GUT MICROBIOME AND OTHER DISRUPTORS

1. Hypothalamus

2. Pituitary gland

3. Adrenal glands

When the body perceives stress, the following cascade of events occurs:

The paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin[1][3].

CRH stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)[1][3].

ACTH travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal cortex, where it stimulates the production and release of glucocorticoids, primarily cortisol in humans[1][3].

Functions and Regulation

The HPA axis serves several important functions:

Stress response: It mediates the body's physiological adaptation to stressors[1][2].

Homeostasis: It regulates various body processes, including metabolism, immune responses, and energy balance[1].

Circadian rhythm: It plays a role in maintaining the body's daily rhythms[2].

The HPA axis is regulated through negative feedback loops:

Elevated cortisol levels inhibit further HPA axis activation by suppressing CRH and ACTH production in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, respectively[3].

This feedback mechanism helps maintain appropriate cortisol levels and prevents overactivation of the stress response[3].

Clinical Significance

Dysregulation of the HPA axis can lead to various health issues:

Chronic stress can result in prolonged activation of the HPA axis, potentially leading to anxiety, depression, and other mood disorders[2].

Abnormal HPA axis function has been implicated in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis[1].

HPA axis dysfunction may contribute to metabolic disorders and cardiovascular diseases[2].

T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triiodothyronine) are crucial thyroid hormones that play vital roles in regulating various bodily functions. Here's an overview of their roles and importance:

Metabolic Regulation

T4 and T3 are essential for controlling metabolism throughout the body. They influence how cells use energy and regulate the body's overall metabolic rate[1][2]. This impacts various processes, including:

Protein synthesis: Thyroid hormones help regulate protein production in cells.

Carbohydrate metabolism: They influence how the body processes and uses carbohydrates.

Fat metabolism: T3 and T4 play a role in fat breakdown and utilization.

Growth and Development

Thyroid hormones are critical for:

Brain development: Especially crucial during fetal development and early childhood.

Physical growth: They influence bone growth and maturation.

Organ Function

T3 and T4 affect the function of nearly every organ system in the body, including:

Cardiovascular system: Regulating heart rate and cardiac output.

Respiratory system: Influencing breathing rate and lung function.

Digestive system: Affecting gut motility and nutrient absorption.

Nervous system: Impacting cognitive function and mood.

Temperature Regulation

Thyroid hormones help maintain body temperature by influencing heat production and energy expenditure[2].

Hormone Interplay

T4 as a prohormone: T4 serves primarily as a reservoir for T3, the more biologically active form[1].

Conversion process: Most T3 is produced by converting T4 to T3 in peripheral tissues, particularly the liver and kidneys[3].

Thyroid-Progesterone Interactions - The thyroid and progesterone can influence each other in several ways:

Thyroid hormones affect the metabolism of steroid hormones, including progesterone.

Hypothyroidism may lead to increased progesterone levels in some men.

Progesterone can influence thyroid hormone binding in the bloodstream.

Both hormones play roles in male fertility and reproductive function.

​​

Feedback Loop

T3 and T4 participate in a complex feedback system involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and thyroid gland to maintain hormonal balance[2][4].

Clinical Significance

Imbalances in T3 and T4 levels can lead to various thyroid disorders:

Hypothyroidism: Insufficient thyroid hormone production, leading to symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, and cold intolerance[5].

Hyperthyroidism: Excessive thyroid hormone production, causing symptoms such as anxiety, weight loss, and heat intolerance[5].

Understanding the roles of T3 and T4 is crucial for diagnosing and managing thyroid disorders, as well as comprehending their wide-ranging effects on overall health and well-being.​​

​​

Does hypothyroidism cause high cortisol (don't confuse it with cholesterol) levels? It has long been known that hypothyroidism causes elevated cortisol levels, presumably due to both decreased clearance and blunted negative feedback of cortisol on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

​

​

Hypothyroidism In Infants

Yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes (jaundice). In most cases, this occurs when a baby's liver can't metabolize a substance called bilirubin, which normally forms when the body recycles old or damaged red blood cells.

A large, protruding tongue.

Difficulty breathing.

Hoarse crying.

An umbilical hernia.

As the disease progresses, infants are likely to have trouble feeding and may fail to grow and develop normally. They may also have:

Constipation

Poor muscle tone

Excessive sleepiness

When hypothyroidism in infants isn't treated, even mild cases can lead to severe physical and mental retardation.

Hypothyroidism in children and teens

In general, children and teens who develop hypothyroidism have the same signs and symptoms as adults do, but they may also experience:

Poor growth, resulting in short stature

Delayed development of permanent teeth

Delayed puberty

Poor mental development

​

​Hyperthyroidism is a condition causing your thyroid to produce too much thyroid hormone. This can cause normal bodily processes to speed up, such as your heart rate. It can also lead to weight loss and difficulty sleeping.

Understanding the roles of T3 and T4 is crucial for diagnosing and managing thyroid disorders, as well as comprehending their wide-ranging effects on overall health and well-being.

Does hypothyroidism cause high cortisol (don't confuse it with cholesterol) levels?
It has long been known that hypothyroidism causes elevated cortisol levels, presumably due to both decreased clearance and blunted negative feedback of cortisol on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Hyperthyroidism is a condition causing your thyroid to produce too much thyroid hormone. This can cause normal bodily processes to speed up, such as your heart rate. It can also lead to weight loss and difficulty sleeping.